Reducing the Negative Impact on Atmospheric Air: An Overview of Economic and Administrative and Legal Tools

. Solving the problem of atmospheric air pollution has been one of the most pressing topics on the modern agenda of sustainable development for more than a decade. Every day mankind emits significant amounts of greenhouse gases and toxic substances such as SO 2 , particulate matters, benzene, lead, etc. The low quality of atmospheric air caused by high degree of contamination entails significant negative consequences for the environment and human health in the long term. A steady increase in greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere provokes an increase in average temperature and, consequently, serious climate changes. Governments of different countries are developing a wide range of state programs to protect the environment and are implementing various initiatives to eco-modernize industrial enterprises that are the largest emitters of emissions. However, despite the measures taken, the situation with atmospheric air pollution remains acute in most countries of the world. The purpose of this study is to review and analyse the most common economic and administrative-legal instruments used to reduce the negative impact on atmospheric air. Based on the results of the study, the most effective tools were identified and recommendations for their further improvement were proposed.


Introduction
The problem of air pollution remains one of the most urgent and discussed in the world community.In 2015, within the framework of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Paris Agreement was adopted, the main goal of which is to keep the growth of global average temperature well below 2°C and limit the increase in temperature on the planet by 1.5°C [1].Huge amount of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) as a result of human activity is the main reason for the increase in the average temperature on the planet [2][3][4].Therefore, in order to achieve this task, it is necessary to take a set of measures to reduce the generation of waste and emissions, including eco-modernization of industrial enterprises, development of green energy and tightening of environmental legislation all under the Circular Economy concept [5][6][7][8].In 2020, at the 26 th UN Climate Change Conference, additional measures were taken to reduce GHG: abandoning the use of coal, significantly limiting deforestation by 2030 and limiting methane emissions [9].
In addition to global initiatives, many governments are developing and implementing additional national programs and legislative acts to reduce air pollution.In the U.S., the Clean Air Act, which has been in force since 1970, regulates all types of air pollution from stationary and mobile sources [10].Moreover, the U.S. government has approved the "US National Climate Strategy", which approves the goal of achieving net zero emissions by 2050 at the latest [11].The EU also has a wide list of various programs and initiatives such as Ambient Air Quality Directive (Directive 2008/50/EC), 2030 Climate Target Plan, European Climate Pact, etc. [12][13][14].These programs and initiatives are aimed at reducing GHG to 55% by 2030 and achieving EU climate neutrality by 2050.In Japan, the Air Pollution Control Act (Law No. 97 of 1968), that came into force in 1968, contains measures to reduce emissions of toxic substances and establishes standards for the quality of atmospheric air; in 1994, the Basic Law on the Environment and the Basic Environmental Plan were developed and approved, which also paid significant attention to measures to reduce anthropogenic impact on the environment and GHG atmosphere [15,16].
Thus, being one of the largest environmental problems, the situation with air pollution and measures to combat it occupy a key place in the environmental policies of most countries.In addition to individual laws that regulate emissions and environmental policy, the topic of air pollution is directly reflected in [17][18][19]: • energy policy: the transition to environmentally friendly fuels and the development of renewable energy sources significantly reduces the anthropogenic load on atmospheric air; • strategic development plans (many countries consider the task of reducing GHG as one of the highest priorities).Environmental legislation in many countries over the past 20 years has shown a stable tendency to tighten: the most obvious trend is observed in France, Japan, Italy, the UK and the U.S. (fig.1).Governments are introducing various environmental requirements for business, setting stricter limits on emissions and discharges of pollutants and limiting the use of natural capital.However, despite this fact, the situation with GHG emissions remains critical: in 2022, the global volume of CO2 emissions reached 36.8GT CO2.Thus, despite the measures taken, the volume of CO2 emissions increased by 72.7% since 1990 [20].
Currently, it is possible to distinguish three main groups of tools aimed at combating air pollution: legal and regulatory tools, economic tools, administrative and management tools.All considered groups are actively used in both developed and emerging economies, but their effectiveness in some cases may be controversial [21,22].For instance, the use of tax regulation of GHG, as well as a system of payments for environmental damage, forces large businesses not only to carry out environmental protection measures, but also to transfer production to countries with less stringent environmental legislation.Thus, the negative impact "moves" from one economic zone to another, in connection with which the global volume of emissions remains at the same level or demonstrates an increase.
The purpose of this study is to review and analyse the most common legal, economic and administrative tools used to reduce the negative impact on atmospheric air.Based on the results of the study, the most effective tools were identified and recommendations for their further improvement were proposed.https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202438900066SESAM 2023 Fig. 1.Environmental Policy Stringency Index in 1990-2020 (made by authors using data from [21].

Materials and Methods
The study included three main stages: 1 Conducting a review of scientific literature, government documents and reports of the largest industrial enterprises on air protection, followed by the selection of the most common tools in world practice.2 Review and analysis of selected tools, determination of their advantages and disadvantages.3 Identification of the most promising tools and the formation of recommendations for improving the efficiency of their use.To analyse the most common tools for air protection, all the selected tools were conditionally divided into three groups (fig.2):

Results and Discussion
Legal and regulatory tools.This group of tools plays a fundamental role in air protection mechanism.International and national regulations and restrictions initially stimulate industry to reduce the volume of emissions of toxic substances and GHG.Then, environmental and energy policies in most countries develop long-term goals and objectives that directly or indirectly affect the fight against air pollution.Such goals include [25][26]: • minimization or complete abandonment of the use of fossil fuels: significant amounts of GHG and toxic substances are released during the fuel combustion; • development of renewable energy sources (RES): the use of such types of renewable energy sources as wind energy, solar energy and hydropower, has minimal or zero impact on the air quality; • increasing the energy and resource efficiency of production activities: introduction of such requirements and standards forces enterprises to reduce the use of natural resources and optimize production processes, thereby reducing the amount of negative impact; • stricter requirements for mobile pollution sources, etc.
The environmental and energy policy of the state primarily sets the directions, goals, objectives and priorities of activities in the field of environmental protection but does not contain tools and ways to achieve the stated goals and objectives, which greatly complicates the adaptation of business to new conditions.
Environmental legislation is one of the state tools regulating the environmental impact of industrial facilities [27].It is often developed and adapted according to the current environmental policy: environmental standards and regulations are being revised, new requirements for the organization of production activities for industrial enterprises are being introduced and requirements for environmental protection are being tightened.The main advantage of environmental standards and regulations is the established legal liability for enterprises in the form of environmental fines for environmental damage caused, payments for exceeding emission standards of harmful substances, etc.The disadvantages of environmental standards and regulations include: • bureaucratization of environmental policy; • high costs of monitoring and obtaining information on emissions/discharges of harmful and toxic substances from enterprises; • low efficiency and slowing down of the innovation process: in some cases, for large enterprises, the payment of payments and fines may be more profitable than the implementation of environmental measures; • the principle of opportunity costs is violated.
To achieve higher efficiency in the field of air protection, in addition to legal and regulatory tools, additional economic tools are being developed and introduced at the state level to stimulate industry to reduce emissions.It should be noted that economic tools should be developed in accordance with the current environmental policy and the economic situation in the regions.
Economic tools.The introduction of economic tools to minimize emissions of harmful substances and GHG into the atmosphere is becoming the basis of environmental policy in most countries of the world.
The most common and effective modern tools for controlling emissions of GHG and toxic substances are environmental taxation, in particular the carbon tax, and Emissions Trading System (ETS).Both tools can be attributed to carbon pricing tools that create a "carbon price" [28,29].
Carbon tax is a tax levied on enterprises or individuals for GHG emissions (CO2, CH4, N2O, SF6, etc.) in order to stimulate them to reduce their carbon footprint in the production and sale of products and services.According to the World Bank, only 40 countries, including the EU, the U.S, Mexico, Japan and Canada, use carbon tax, which covers about 13% of annual GHG emissions [30].The highest tax rate according to [31] in Uruguay: $137 U.S. for 1 ton of CO2-equivalent, followed by Switzerland, Sweden and Liechtenstein with a rate of $130 U.S. for 1 ton of CO2-equivalent.
ETS is a market tool used to reduce GHG, operating on the cap-and-trade principle.The government sets an upper limit or "cap" on the total amount of emissions in one or more sectors of the economy.Companies in these sectors must have a permit (certificate) for every ton of emissions they produce [32].They can get emission permits for free or buy them from the state, as well as trade them with other companies.The number of certificates is limited.Currently, there are 28 ETS operating worldwide and 20 are under development or implementation [33].The most liquid carbon markets are in the EU, the U.S. (California) and China.
Both economic instruments can be used simultaneously to achieve higher efficiency in reducing GHG emissions into the atmosphere at the national and regional levels.However, their use leads to an increase in natural energy prices and, as a result, to an acceleration of inflation at the regional level.Table 1 presents a comparative characteristic of both economic instruments, including their advantages and disadvantages.

Price Formation
The ability to accurately predict GHG emissions prices, which increases investment confidence among stakeholders.
The cost of 1 ton of GHG emissions can vary significantly over a period of time, which reduces investment confidence and complicates planning.

Impact on emissions
The difficulty of determining the amount of emissions reduction as a result of using this tool.
The volume of emissions may not exceed the limit set by the State.

Adoption rate
Fast implementation due to: -there is no need to restructure the tax system with subsequent adaptation to it; -transparent and relatively simple administrative system.
Slow implementation due to the following factors: -the need to create a new management system with the involvement of a large number of specialists; -high requirements for ETS administration; -high level of bureaucratization.

Benefits
-carbon tax eliminates the need for hedging funds and the use of secondary securities, which reduces investment risks; -a high level of awareness and understanding of the concept of carbon tax among the public; -provides an opportunity to control industries that cause the greatest damage to the natural environment through export subsidies and tariffs for carbon export/import*; -provides guaranteed tax revenues to the budget.
-the development of ETS increases the efficiency of the application of tax rates; -completely eliminates the possibility of overstating prices for GHG; -creates additional external incentives to reduce emissions for industrial enterprises; -provides businesses with additional income from the sale of their GHG emission quotas in case of reaching the minimum possible amount of emissions; Drawbacks -carbon tax rates may be biased: either too high or too low; -the government can use carbon tax as a tool of pressure on business.
-lack of guaranteed budget revenues; -additional conditions are being created for the enrichment of third parties: intermediaries and brokers; -the possibility of easy manipulation or distortion of information in order to obtain commercial benefits;

Carbon tax ETS
-modern ETS may encourage rent-oriented behaviour of stakeholders.
One of the most effective tools for minimizing the magnitude of environmental risks is environmental insurance.Environmental insurance is one of the tools for managing external negative costs and makes it possible to compensate for part of the damage caused to third parties as a result of environmental pollution at the expense of insurance funds [38].Insurance compensation includes: (i) compensation for property damage; (ii) compensation for the costs of cleaning up the contaminated area and eliminating consequences for the environment and public health; (iii) expenses for saving the life and property of citizens.
There are two forms of environmental insurance in the world: voluntary and compulsory, the latter is actively used in most EU countries and the U.S. Introduction of mandatory environmental insurance for industrial enterprises along with carbon tax and ETS, there are objective reasons for the widespread introduction of the practice of environmental insurance: inefficiency of the payment system for negative environmental impacts, insufficient own funds of enterprises to eliminate the consequences of environmental accidents and compensation for losses to victims, lack of a clear system of economic instruments guaranteeing compensation for damage caused to the environment.This tool has an indirect impact on the fight against atmospheric air pollution: in addition to creating financial funds to eliminate unforeseen environmental damage, environmental insurance encourages enterprises to minimize the risks of insured events: enterprises implement EMS, implement environmental protection measures, use the Best Available Techniques (BAT), etc.
The implementation of environmental protection measures and/or eco-modernization to reduce the anthropogenic impact on the atmospheric air requires a significant amount of financial investment on the part of the enterprise.Legal, regulatory and economic tools imply an increase in the economic burden for enterprises that are the largest emitters of emissions, which on the one hand encourages them to reduce emissions, and on the other hand reduces financial opportunities for greening activities [39,40].Environmental leasing and state subsidies create additional economic incentives for the implementation of air protection measures.A leasing loan is one of the most promising instruments for financing environmental projects, which provides issuing enterprises to obtain fixed assets under a leasing agreement used to control and clean up emissions of toxic substances and GHG.Thus, enterprises get the opportunity to use the latest technologies without one-time large financial investments.In addition, at the end of the contract, fixed assets can also become the property of the enterprise that creates additional guarantees and incentives.State support also plays a key role in financing environmental protection measures, in particular at small and medium-sized industrial enterprises.The state support tools include subsidies, preferential rates on loans, grants for research and project co-financing.
Thus, economic tools for air protection play a central role in achieving the goals of reducing GHG and toxic substances emissions into the atmosphere.They cover a wide range of the company's activities: from providing opportunities for financial support from the state for eco-modernization projects, to insurance of environmental risks.Despite the identified shortcomings of the most promising economic instruments -carbon tax and ETS, they can become the main drivers of reducing the global negative impact on atmospheric air until 2050.
However, the effective use of economic instruments involves the improvement of existing approaches to corporate governance at the level of a single enterprise and the use of a wide range of administrative and management tools.
Administrative and management tools.The tightening of environmental policy and legislation, the introduction of economic tools such as carbon tax and ETS and the need for eco-modernization require new approaches and management tools from industrial enterprises, in which environmental aspects of activity will occupy one of the central positions.
The introduction of an environmental management system (EMS) and the certification of activities according to ISO international standards are one of the most common and effective administrative tools for reducing emissions of toxic substances and GHG into the atmosphere at the level of a single enterprise [41].EMS is an integral part of the corporate governance system of an enterprise, the purpose of which is to achieve the goals and objectives specified in the internal environmental policy of the enterprise and in the national environmental policy through the implementation of environmental programs and measures [42].ISO standards 14001:2015, 14004:2016, 14005:2019 [43][44][45] contain the framework for the effective implementation and subsequent functioning of EMS in enterprises.The presence of EMS and certification significantly increases the likelihood of receiving state subsidies and preferential loans for the implementation of environmental protection measures and allows you to conclude environmental leasing and insurance contracts on more favourable terms.Among the advantages of these tools for enterprises in the framework of combating atmospheric air pollution, it is possible to distinguish: increasing the efficiency of using enterprise resources and, consequently, reducing the impact on atmospheric air; continuous analysis of compliance with environmental legislation requirements; clearer distribution of responsibility for environmental protection activities within the enterprise; more effective implementation of environmental measures through long-term planning.
Despite the obvious advantages of EMS and certification of activities according to ISO international standards, their use in small and medium-sized businesses is not always possible due to the lack of sufficient financial and labour resources [41].Moreover, the introduction of EMS in enterprises with outdated fixed assets requires initial ecomodernization and subsequent implementation of EMS, which requires a huge amount of financial resources.
Environmental audit is another administrative and managerial tool that makes it possible to increase the efficiency of an enterprise within the framework of reducing emissions [46,47].There are two types of environmental audit: external and internal.The external one is aimed at solving the following tasks: obtaining reliable information by the state about the activities of enterprises in the field of environmental management and environmental protection; analysing the environmental efficiency of enterprises and assisting in the formation of environmental policy priorities and the development of measures to reduce emissions; reduction of financial risks for stakeholders, in particular, insurance and financial credit organizations.Internal audit allows you to maintain an effective system of control over the environmental activities of the enterprise and promptly make changes to current activities to minimize environmental damage.Within the framework of reducing emissions of toxic substances and GHG into the atmosphere, both types of audits play a key role: it is the organization of an effective external and internal emission control system that allows timely identification of deficiencies in current environmental activities, thereby reducing the degree of negative impact.It should be noted that environmental audit is one of the parts of environmental management of the enterprise.
The application and development of its own technical and environmental standards, along with generally accepted ones, also contributes to reducing emissions at the level of a single enterprise.The development of standards is most often carried out within the framework of EMS for the implementation of internal environmental audit, thereby further stimulating enterprises to reduce the degree of exposure to atmospheric air.
The implementation and use of the above administrative and management tools is impossible without a proper corporate governance system, where environmental aspects of activities are central.Such management is based on the willingness and ability of top management to maintain constructive multi-level relationships with all direct stakeholders (the public administration sector, banks, clients and counterparties, etc.) and indirect stakeholders (the press, non-governmental organizations, the public, etc.) [48,49].Such a management system involves the introduction of a corporate culture, which will highlight the importance of reducing anthropogenic impact on atmospheric air and improving the environmental efficiency of the enterprise.In addition, the presence of such a system will increase the level of awareness of personnel and, in some cases, the public in environmental issues, ways to improve the resource and energy efficiency of everyday life [50].
Thus, based on the results of the analysis and review, it can be concluded that all three groups of tools of air protection are closely interrelated: • legal and regulatory tools form the vector of national and regional environmental policy, contain basic requirements for conducting activities, set emission standards and long-term goals for overall reduction of negative effects on atmospheric air.• economic tools are key tools for the practical achievement of state-level emission reduction goals.It is they who encourage enterprises to reduce emissions and increase the resource and energy efficiency of production through economic penalties, sanctions or the prospect of receiving state subsidies for environmental protection activities.The use of economic instruments in most cases is regulated by the government, however, in order to achieve better results, it is necessary to increase the flexibility of instruments and facilitate their adaptation at the level of a single issuing enterprise.• administrative and management tools contribute to the rapid adaptation of the enterprise to the tightening environmental policy and the rapid implementation of various economic instruments.Effective enterprise management is an important aspect of achieving environmental sustainability and minimizing emissions.The use of certain instruments is determined by the current environmental policy and the economic instruments being implemented (for example, ETS, carbon tax, mandatory environmental insurance).Figure 3 shows the relationship of the groups of considered instruments in the framework of the control and reducing of air pollution: To achieve the maximum effect of minimizing emissions of GHG and toxic substances, it is necessary to improve approaches to the use of tools of all three groups.The instruments should meet the requirements of the current environmental agenda, but at the same time consider the specifics of the national and regional economy.In addition, for industries that are the largest environmental pollutants, it is necessary to develop adapted economic and administrative tools that will consider the current state of the industry and its specifics.

Conclusions
Thus, legal and regulatory tools, despite their relatively low efficiency, play an important role in the process of reducing emissions of GHG and toxic substances: they set key directions, set standards, regulations and priorities of environmental protection activities for emission-emitting enterprises.However, to achieve the stated goals, it is necessary to develop and implement economic tools at the national and regional levels and use administrative tools at the level of a single enterprise.
One of the most promising economic tools, according to the authors, are carbon tax and ETS.However, their use should be accompanied by mandatory environmental insurance and the introduction of EMS in most industrial enterprises.All this together will allow achieving higher efficiency in reducing GHG emissions and toxic substances into the atmosphere.In addition, an important role is played by the support of small and mediumsized businesses, who also have a negative impact on the state of atmospheric air, but due to lack of financial and labour resources cannot carry out eco-modernization or introduce new environmental technologies.Thus, achieving the set goals in the field of emission reduction at the international and national levels is possible only with the use of a set of legal, economic and administrative tools.

Fig. 2 .
Fig. 2. Groups of considered air protection tools (made by authors)

Fig. 3 .
Fig. 3. Interrelations between considered groups of air protection tools (made by authors)